Canon of the Bible
Summary Remarks
7 categories of books:
- Jewish/Protestant Old Testament (incl. Pseudographa)
- Catholic Greek Old Testament
List
showing placement of deuterocanonical books
Description of
deuterocanonical books
- Additional Old Testament Books in the Eastern Orthodox
Canon: list and
descriptions
- Additional Books in the Canon of the Ethiopian
Monophysite Church
- Old Testament Apocrypha (i.e. not included in
categories 1-4)
- Christian New Testament
- Additional Christian Apocrypha
Early Christian Manuscripts and disputed books
Arguments regarding the Catholic Deuterocanonical Books
Arguments regarding the Orthodox Deuterocanonical Books
Summary Remarks
There are 66 books in the Protestant canon and 72 in the Catholic canon.
By comparison, the 42 books listed below (debated among Jews and early Christians
and/or deemed canonical by various groups of ancient Christians which survive to
the present day) which may be considered controversial:
Hebrews |
Shepherd of Hermes |
1 Esdras |
3 Corinthians |
1 Clement |
2 Esdras |
2 John |
2 Clement |
Prayer of Manasseh |
3 John |
Ascension of Isaiah |
Tobit |
2 Peter |
Book of Henoch |
Letter of Jeremiah |
James |
Book of Jubilees |
Greek Additions to Daniel |
Jude |
Combat of Adam and Eve |
Sirach |
Revelation |
Wisdom of Solomon |
Esther |
Epistle of Barnabas |
Baruch |
Greek Additions to Esther |
Didache |
Judith |
Ecclesiastes |
Acts of St. Paul |
1 Maccabees |
Song of Songs |
Apocalypse of Peter |
2 Maccabees |
Proverbs |
Apostolic Constitutions |
3 Maccabees |
Ezekiel |
Gospel of the Hebrews |
4 Maccabees |
Psalm 151 |
The early Church did not have widespread agreement on the
books of the New Testament until the end of the fourth century (Council of Hippo
in 393, 3rd Council of Carthage in 397, and 6th Council of Carthage in 419), and
even then this was an agreement in the Western Mediterranean alone, i.e. the
canon was not final settled by an ecumenical council until 1546. The fact is
that the canon of the Bible was not an issue which divided Christians enough for
them to decide the matter until the dawn of Protestantism in 1546. They were,
however, throughout the first 15 centuries of Christianity numerous widespread
controversies concerning the nature of Christ and the Trinity and the
Sacraments, which were settled in a series of ecumenical councils which were
called to irreformably decide these questions (e.g. I and II Nicea, I and II
Constantinople, Ephesus, Chalcedon, I-IV Lateran, Florence). The fact that
disagreements about the Biblical canon continued during and after the fourth century
can be seen in the following:
- Codex Vaticanus (4th century) has Wisdom, Sirach, Judith, Tobit, Baruch
and Letter of Jeremiah.
- Cheltenham list (4th century): list has the 4 canonical gospels, 13
Pauline epistles (canonical minus Hebrews), Acts, Revelation, 1 John and 1
Peter.
- Codex Sinaiticus (4th century) includes the Jewish OT books plus Tobith,
Judith, 1 & 4 Maccabees, Wisdom and Sirach, as well as the 27 NT books
plus Shepherd of Hermas and
Epistle of Barnabas at the end.
- Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) has has Jewish OT books plus Baruch,
Letter of Jeremiah, Tobit, Judith, 1-4 Maccabees, Wisdom and Sirach, as well
as the 27 NT books plus 1 and 2 Clement.
- Codex Claromontanus (6th century) omits Phil, 1 and 2 Thes and Heb and
includes Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, Acts of Paul and
Revelation of Peter (Hartono, "New Testament Canon").
The fact that Christians did not consider the canon a
significant issue until the 16th century is strong evidence that any form of
Christianity which requires as an essential point that there exists a
clearly-defined canon must be a different form of Christianity than existed at
any time between in the first sixteen centuries of Christian history. Further,
we do not have strong traditions of apostolic authorship for all the New
Testament writings from the early second century on. On the contrary, Revelation
was barely admitted and was widely disputed for centuries. The epistle of
Hebrews just a little less so, along with James, Jude, 2 Peter, and 2 & 3
John. Most modern Christians will agree that Hebrews and Revelation are important to Christianity. Also the Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermes,
Didache, and the Gospel of the Hebrews were widely accepted as authoritative,
and read in church. Hard evidence of the confused state of the the canon in the
early Church is found in the following easily-verifiable facts:
- Marcion (c.150) listed a "canon" consisting of the Gospel of
Luke (edited) and 10 Pauline epistles to which he referred as Gospel and
Apostle.
- The Gospel of John was slow to gain universal acceptance because its first
Patristic Quotation comes from the Gnostic writer Basilides and the first
commentary on it was written and popularized by Gnostics.
- The Gospel of Peter was read and appreciated by Christians in
the second century and quoted by Justin Martyr.
- The "Muratiorian Fragment" (named after L.A. Muratori who
published the list, copied from a 7th century codex) provides a list of
accepted books in Rome from c.180-200 which includes the Jewish Old
Testament plus the Wisdom of Solomon. The New Testament consists of our 27
book less Hebrews, James, 1 Peter, and 2 Peter. The canonical Apocalypse of
John is placed alongside the non-canonical Apocalypse of Peter. The fragment
attests to the very favorable and perhaps canonical standing of the Shepherd
of Hermas at Rome, though concludes that it may be read but not to given to
the people. The fragment alleges that the Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans
and the Alexandrines are forged.
- Tatian quoted from the Gospel of the Hebrews as a reliable source
referring to a light which shone around at Jesus baptism.
- The Diatessaron (Tatian's chronological harmonization of the four
canonical Gospels in a chronological order) was used as a substitute for the
canonical gospels in the Syrian church until the early fifth century when
they gave it up (reluctantly) for the four separate gospels.
- Ireneus quoted Hermes as scripture, as did Origen and Cyprian.
- The provincial Council of Laodicea (363)
excluded Revelation, as did Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386) and Gregory of Nazianzen.
- Origen (185-254) listed only the Letter of Jeremiah from the
deuterocanonical books in his OT catalog, though his writings cite the
deuterocanonical books of the OT as Scripture and he defended the sacredness
of Tobias, Judith, and the fragments of Daniel in his letter of Julius
Africanus. He lists two categories of NT books: undisputed (four gospels,
Acts, Pauline epistles, 1 Peter, 1 John and Revelation) and disputed in the Church
though he himself accepted them as Scripture (Hebrews, 2 Peter, 2 and 3
John, James, Jude, Didache Epistle of Barnabas, Shepherd of Hermas, and
probably the Gospel of the Hebrews). Origen was the first known Christian
writer to mention 2 Peter.
- Cyprian (3rd century) included all our 27 NT books except except Hebrews,
2 Peter, James, and Jude. He also recognized Shepherd of Hermas and
considered Didache an authentic apostolic work as well.
- Lucian of Samosata, a founders of the Antioch exegetical school excluded
Apocalypse, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude.
- The "Mommsen's Canon," a 10th-century manuscript from a West
African original c.360 contains a lists with our 27 NT books excluding
Hebrews, James, and Jude.
- Theodore of Mopsuestia rejected all the Catholic Epistles.
- Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea (314-339) provided three lists: universally
acknowledged (four gospels, Acts, 14 Pauline epistles including Hebrews, 1
John, 1 Peter and Revelation), disputed of a superior sort (James, Jude, 2
Peter, 2 and 3 John) and disputed of an inferior sort (Acts of Paul,
Shepherd of Hermas, Apocalypse of Peter, Epistle of Barnabas, and Didache).
He personally rejected the now-canonical Revelation.
- Amphilochius of Iconium (4th C) gave a list of our 27 books, but
stated that Hebrews, 2 and 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude and Revelation were all spurious.
- John Chrysostom (Bishop of Constantinople 397-407) excluded 2 Peter, 2 and 3
John, Jude and Revelation.
- Tertullian considered the book of Enoch inspired, as does the Abyssian
Church to the present day (along with Jubilees, Mysteries of Heaven and Earth,
Combat of Adam and Eve, and Ascension of Isaias).
- Esther was rejected by leading Christian Fathers into the
fourth century: Melito (~170), Athanasius (367), and Gregory of Nazianzus (c.
330-390).
- Until the fifth century, the Syriac Church NT canon included only 4
gospels or Diatessaron, Acts and 14 Paul's epistles (with Hebrews), plus 3
Corinthians. In the early fifth century, James, 1 Peter and 1 John were
accepted. In 508, part of the Syriac Church accepted the entire 27-book
canon.
- St. Hippolytus (d. 236) comments on the Susanna chapter, often quotes
Wisdom as the work of Solomon, and employs as Sacred Scripture Baruch and
the Machabees.
- In
367, a list drawn up by Athanasius (Bishop of Alexandria) matches our 27 New Testament books for the first time,
but his opinion was just one of many. Moreover, he included Baruch and
the Letter of Jeremiah from the deuterocanonical books but omitted Esther.
He also listed as books appointed for reading to catechumens for edification
and instruction: Wisdom of Solomon, the Ecclesiasticus, Esther, Judith,
Tobias, Didache, Shepherd of Hermas; all others are apocrypha and heretical
(Festal Epistle). Gregory of Nazianzus (c 330 - 390) followed this OT list
of Athanasius.
- The local Council of Laodicea (c. 363) included Baruch and the Letter of
Jeremiah from the deuterocanonical books but included Esther and excluded
Revelation from the accepted NT books.
- Cyril (Bishop of Jerusalem, 348-386) follows Origen's OT list but included
Baruch as well and excluded Revelation from the NT.
- Gregory of Nazianzen also excluded Revelation from the NT.
- St. Augustine used the deuterocanonical books throughout his writings with
no differentiation of authenticity and in "De Doctrin
Christian" lists the Tridentine Old Testament.
- The Synod of Toledo (633) states that many still contested the authority
of John's Apocalypse, and found it necessary to order the book to be read in
the churches under pain of excommunication.
- A few Renaissance Catholic scholars such as Erasmus and Cardinal Cajetan
expressed doubt regarding the authenticity of the deuterocanonical books of
the OT and James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and John's Apocrypha.
- Luther, based on dogmatic reasons and the judgment of antiquity, judged
Hebrews, James, Jude, and Apocalypse as altogether uncanonical; Lutherans of
the 17th century excluded not only Hebrews, James, Jude, and Apocalypse, but
2 Peter, 2 and 3 John as well;
- Zwingli considered John's Apocalypse apocrypha;
- Oecolampadia attributed an inferior status to James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and
3 John.
- To the present day, the Armenian Church includes 3rd Corinthians in its NT
canon.
- To the present day, the Syrian Nestorians exclude the four smaller
Catholic Epistles (James, 1 Peter, 1 John, and <) and Apocalypse, like
the ancient East Syrians.
- To the present day, the Coptic-Arabic Church includes 1 & 2 Clement
and the Apostolic Constitutions in its NT canon.
- To the present day, the New Testament canon of the Ethiopic Church
contains the Apostolic Constitutions.
Thus, as late as the
fourth century, James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Revelation were still widely
debated, and on the basis of early church testimony alone, without the
authoritative decision of a subsequent church council, we should even now doubt
the apostolic authority of at least Revelation, Hebrews, 2 and 3 John, 2 Peter,
Jude, and Revelation, and should be slow to dismiss at least the Shepherd of
Hermes and the Gospel of the Hebrews (9 books). We cannot have probable
confidence about the traditional New Testament canon without belief in divine
guidance through a visible organ such as an infallible Church. John Wenham, a
Protestant theologian who gave special attention to the canon, noting this
difficulty, appeals to the guidance of Providence to insure the soundness of
their decisions, but does not explain why he then rejects this Providence in
other matters of Catholic doctrine before and after the local council of Hippo.
Finally, the canon of the Old Testament was, and still is,
controversial. From Christs infallible teachings on the Old Testament, we can
regard the Old Testament as inspired and infallible, but what exactly did this
Old Testament include which Jesus declared authoritative? First, there is the
dispute over the Catholic deuterocanonical books (Sirach, Wisdom of Solomon, Baruch,
Judith, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, Tobit, Letter of Jeremiah, and several
additional chapters of Daniel and Esther), included in the Catholic Old
Testament but not in the Protestant Old Testament. The Catholic canon of the Old
Testament was also not settled by ecumenical council until 1546, but there was
an Old Testament canon promulgated along with the New Testament canon cited
above by the local councils of Hippo in 393, and Carthage in 397 and 419. This
canon included the deuterocanonical books, making it suspicious when Protestants
appeal to these local councils as evidence for the canon of the New Testament
but ignore the Old Testament canon promulgated together with that New Testament
canon by these very same councils. Besides these, there is also the question of
the "Antilegomena," Old Testament books which were still of
controversial authority even in the second century: Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes,
Esther, Proverbs, and Ezekiel (cf. Archer, Survey of Old Testament
Introduction). It should be noted that Ethiopian Jews, against the general
Jewish canon from the Council of Jamnia, AD 90, accept all the Septuagint books
(except Ecclesiasticus) to this day (Encyclopedia of Religion, Vol. 2, page
174). For the purposes of this discussion it need only be noted that between
the deuterocanonical books and the Antilegomena, there are 25 books of
considerable disputability from the Old Testament.
It can be argued that these 42 disputed books are not
essential to Christianity. However, this seems fairly dubious for several
reasons. First, Revelation tells us far more about our heavenly home than any
other book, and Hebrews is very valuable for its teaching on the priesthood of
Christ. 2 Maccabees 12:46 teaches purgatory fairly clearly. Other
deuterocanonical verses support Catholic justification (Tobit 12:9, 14:10,11;
Ecclus 3:30; 1 Macc 2:52) (Wenham 152), intercession of saints (2 Macc
15:12-16), and the power of good works to atone for sin (Sir 3:3,15,17). Second,
the claim that everything important is not in these books seems a rather
subjective claim: the most important according to whom and according to whose
authoritative opinion? Third, in principle, what kind of a canon is it that
contains 66 books, and 42 uncertain ones (64% uncertainty)? This suggests rather that the canon
was not an important question for Christians and for God for the first 15
centuries of Christianity. The boundary of the canon is remains to this day too
ambiguous to assert (even probably) without an external, visible infallible
organ, and to make such an assertion independent of this organ seems to fly in
the face of the implication of historical fact that Christians were not too
concerned about the canon for 15 centuries because they looked to another
authority besides scripture alone.
1. Jewish/Protestant Old Testament (Pseudographa marked *)
Genesis |
2 Chronicles |
Daniel |
Exodus |
Ezra |
Hosea |
Leviticus |
Nehemiah |
Joel |
Numbers |
* Esther |
Amos |
Deuteronomy |
Job |
Obadiah |
Joshua |
Psalms |
Jonah |
Judges |
Proverbs |
Micah |
Ruth |
Ecclesiastes |
Nahum |
1 Samuel |
* Song of Solomon (Song of Songs, Canticles) |
Habakkuk |
2 Samuel |
Isaiah |
Zephaniah |
1 Kings |
Jeremiah |
Haggai |
2 Kings |
Lamentations |
Zechariah |
1 Chronicles |
* Ezekiel |
Malachi |
Notes:
- Genesis 6 genealogies differ in the LXX and in the Hebrew (Masoretic
text).
- In the LXX and Vulgate, the Hebrew Ps 9/10 and 114/115 are grouped
together, and the Hebrew 116 and 147 are split in two. Hence the numbering,
Hebrew and LXX: 1-9 same, 10 (9b), 11 (10)-114 (113), 115 (113b), 116
(114-115), 117 (116)-146 (145), 147 (146-147), 148-150 same.
2. Catholic Greek Old Testament
List (showing placement of deuterocanonical books, marked by *)
Genesis |
* Tobit |
* Daniel (with additions) |
Exodus |
* Judith |
Hosea |
Leviticus |
* Esther (with additions) |
Joel |
Numbers |
Job |
Amos |
Deuteronomy |
Psalms |
Obadiah |
Joshua |
Proverbs |
Jonah |
Judges |
Ecclesiastes |
Micah |
Ruth |
* Song of Solomon (Song of Songs, Canticles) |
Nahum |
1 Samuel (LXX: 1 Kings) |
* Wisdom |
Habakkuk |
2 Samuel (LXX: 2 Kings) |
*Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) |
Zephaniah |
1 Kings (LXX: 3 Kings) |
Isaiah |
Haggai |
2 Kings(LXX: 4 Kings) |
Jeremiah |
Zechariah |
1 Chronicles (LXX: 1 Paralipomenon) |
Lamentations |
Malachi |
2 Chronicles (LXX: 2 Paralipomenon) |
* Letter of Jeremiah |
* 1 Maccabees |
Ezra (LXX, Russian: 1 Esdras) |
* Letter of Baruch |
* 2 Maccabees |
Nehemiah (LXX: 2 Esdras) |
Ezekiel |
|
Description of Catholic deuterocanonical books:
- Tobit
- Judith
- Wisdom of Solomon. Mentions afterlife. Destiny of righteous and wicked;
praise for personified Wisdom; recalls Jews in Egypt to Judaism away from
skepticism, idolatry, animal worship. Wisdom contains messianic prophecy:
"But the godless will call out . . . If the virtuous man is Gods
son, God will take his part and rescue him from the clutches of his enemies.
. . . Let us condemn him to a shameful death" (Wisd 1:16, 2:18,20)
predicts "The chief priests, the teachers of the law and the elders
mocked him. . . . He trusts in God. Let God rescue him now if he wants
him, for he said, I am the Son of God" (Mt 27:41,43)
("Complete" 2).
- Eccelsiasticus (Wisdom of Sirach). Eulogy in 44:1f often used in funeral
services. Advocates enlightened self-interest and makes observations based
on experience. Written in Hebrew, translated into Greek by grandson,
probably written ~180 BC by upper-class Jerusalem sage. Sir 3:3,15,17
supports the power of good works to atone for sin. Sir 31:29f praise wine.
- 1 Maccabees: Eyewitness account of years 167-137 BC, describing the Jewish
revolt against Antichus Epiphanes. Written in Hebrew.
- 2 Maccabees: Parallel account of Maccabean revolt; abridged from Jason of
Cyrenes 5-volume history and covering years 175-160 BC. More
propagandistic. 2 Macc 12:45-46 supports purgatory and prayer for the dead.
2 Macc 15:12-16 supports the intercession of saints. 2 Macc 15:38 closes,
interestingly: "If [this book] is trashy and mediocre, that is all I
could manage." The New Testament alludes to 2 Macc 6:18-7:41 in Heb
11:35.
- Baruch
- Letter of Jeremiah (appended to Baruch in Vulgate; put after Lamentations
in LXX). Upbraids idolaters.
- Additions to Esther (in 6 different places). Because the Greek and Hebrew
texts of Esther differ, even in the non-added places, scholars are divided
about whether the additions are simply later Greek additions or translations
from an earlier Hebrew version of Esther.
- Additions to Daniel
- Susanna (Daniel 1). Describes Daniel's demonstrating the guilt of
several men who accuse Susanna of adultery by having them testify
independently about the details of the adultery they claimed to have
witnessed.
- Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Children (inserted between
Daniel 3:23 and 3:24). Includes a prayer of Azariah (Hebrew for Abednego)
and a hymn of thanks with a repeating line as in Ps 136.
- Bel and the Dragon (Daniel 13) (and another trip to the lions den)
3. Additional Old Testament Books in the Eastern Orthodox
Canon
Prayer of Manasseh |
2 Esdras (LXX: 4 Esdras, Russian: 3 Esdras) |
Psalm 151 |
1 Esdras (LXX: 3 Esdras, Russian: 2 Esdras) |
4 Maccabees (Russian: 3 Maccabees) |
Syrian ending to Job |
- Prayer of Manasseh: This penitential prayer claims to be prayer mentioned in 2 Chronicles
33:18, but was clearly written by a Christian.
Though it is still sometimes used in the Catholic liturgy, it was not canonized at the Council of Trent
because it contains the line "For Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who did not
sin against you..." which contradicts the Biblical accounts of the
patriarchs and the doctrine of original sin. It was, however, included in the
post-Tridentine appendix to the official Vulgate. The prayer was
incorporated in the ancient so-called Apostolic Constitutions.
- 1 Esdras (LXX: 3 Esdras, Russian: 2 Esdras) "The Greek Ezra."
Gives parallel account of the end of 2 Chronicles, Ezra, and part of Nehemiah,
but chronologically confused;
Josephus uses it alone as his source in Antiquities 11.1-5. Its most famous
story, and the only part of the book which is not contained in those
canonical books which it retells is the story of
the 3 guardsmen (Hebrew bodyguards of Babylonian King Darius), who have a contest over what is the greatest thing in the
world (chapters 3-5). Of the four answerswine, the king, and women and truthZerubabels
famous answer wins: "Great is Truth, and mighty above all things" (1
Esdras 4:41). Following Jerome and the Councils of Carthage, and noting that 1
Esdras is either incomplete or placed in a supplement in all official copies
of the Vulgate, Trent decided not to recognize this book, but it was
nevertheless included in the appendix to the official Vulgate after
Trent. 3 Esdras exists in two of the oldest codices of the LXX (Vaticanus
and Alexandrinus), and was quoted as Scripture throughout the early Church
period with implicit faith by the leading Greek and Latin Fathers. It was
probably written in Greek by an Alexandrian Jew.
- 2 Esdras (LXX: 4 Esdras, Russian: 3 Esdras) "The Ezra
Apocalypse." The first and last two
chapters (1,2,15,16) may be Christian additions. In
the book, Ezra asks God for an explanation of why He treats the equally-sinful
nations better than his own people Israel (apparently seeking an explanation
for the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus). Through a series of visions and
dreams, the angel Uriel answers that all will be made right at the impending
judgment, and only a few will be saved. The Messiah of 4 Esdras is mortal and
is reign an earthy period of happiness. Significantly, the book includes the
doctrine of original sin. This book was more widely accepted by early
Christians than any other apocryphon, was accepted by many Church Fathers as
Scripture, and maintained an intermediate position
between canonical and apocryphal until the Council of Trent, and even after
Trent was included in an appendix to the official Vulgate, along with 3
Esdras. The book is superior literarily to most apocrypha as well. The book
was originally written in Greek by a Jew (after the death of Nero in AD 68
and probably during the reign of Domitian, A.D. 81-96). It is
preserved in Latin, Syriac, Armenian, Ethoipic, and Arabic manuscripts; the
oldest extant copy is in Latin
from the second century; only the Latin text contains chapter 15 and 16. It is
quoted by Clement of Alexandria. This book and
the Book of Henoch were the most influential of the millenialist Jewish
apocalypses; they encouraged Christians to interpret the canonical books of
Daniel and Revelation in the same millenialist framework, though this was
(and is) contrary to the orthodox Church interpretation of these books as
well as the orthodox eschatological doctrines. As a result, millenialism has
been infleuncial in Christianity, especially in Protestantism and Protestant
sects (cf. Jehovah's Witnesses, 7th Day Adventism).
- 4 Maccabees (Russian: 3 Maccabees). The book includes two
parts: first, a philosophical exposition on reason in submission to the
Mosaic Law; and second, a fuller treatment of story of martyrdom
of Eliazar and 7 youths and their mother from 2 Maccabees 6-7, using them as
heroic examples of pious reason. The first part was clearly influenced by
Greek Stoic philosophy, from which it takes the four cardinal virtues (these
virtues entered Christian theological discourse through this book). Eusebius
and others incorrectly attributed the book to Josephus, though its author
and date of composition are unknown.
- 3 Maccabees (Jewish Legend). This book recounts
the attempted desecration of the Temple at Jerusalem by the Egyptian king,
Ptolemy IV (Philopator) after his victory over Antiochus the Great at Raphia,
217 B.C., and the miraculous frustration of his attempt to wreak vengeance
upon the Egyptian Jews through a massacre with elephants. Though no
historical event can be assigned to this account, it may well be a highly-embelled
version of the event which Josephus recounts in "Against Apion",
1I, 5. The book was written in Greek by an
Alexandrian Jew and is included in the Alexandrine
codex of the LXX and various private manuscripts. It was never well known in
the West, but was used by the Syrian Church and included in the canon of the
Greek Church (probably due to its mention in the Apostolic Constitutions).
- Psalm 151: By David on occasion of fighting Goliath.
4. Additional Books in the Canon of the Ethiopian
Monophysite Church
- Book of Henoch (Enoch). This lengthy book is, along with 4
Esdras, one of the most important millenialist Jewish apocalypses. Its style
is reminiscent of Daniel and Revelation. The influence of these Jewish
writings was to encourage Christians to interpret the canonical books of
Daniel and Revelation in the same millenialist framework, though this was
(and is) contrary to the orthodox Church interpretation of these books as
well as the orthodox eschatological doctrines. As a result, millenialism has
been infleuncial in Christianity, especially in Protestantism and Protestant
sects (cf. Jehovah's Witnesses, 7th Day Adventism).
- Kufale, a.k.a. Book of Jubilees or Little Genesis (Jewish Legend): Jerome
and others mentioned this work, which he testifies was originally written in
Hebrew, though it was unknown until discovered in an Ethiopian manuscript in
the 19th century. The book retells Genesis with embellishments by a Jew,
living c.135 BC-AD 60. It claims to be a revelation by the "Angel
of the Face" to Moses. Special attention is devoted throughout to
chronology, using the system of years, weeks of years, and jubilees, hence
the name. The book attributes the origin of the great Jewish feasts to the
Genesis patriarchs. The book discusses angels, denies the resurrection of
the body, and insists on observing the Law is insisted on. It quotes the
Book of Henoch is quoted and is itself quoted in the Jewish portion of the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs.
- Book of the Mysteries of Heaven and Earth
- Combat of Adam and Eve
- Ascension of Isaias (Jewish Legend with Christian Accretions): Consists of
two parts: the first describes the martyrdom of Isaiah, the
second his vision of the seven levels of heaven, where he beholds the
Trinity and sees the Son, "the Beloved", descending to redeem the
world (changing form as he passes through the celestial circles), and later
reascending in glory. He changes his form in passing through the inferior
celestial circles. This book is found in Ethiopian, Greek, and Slavonic
manuscripts and can be dated to the first century (Jewish sections) and the second
century (Christian interpolations).
5. Old Testament Apocrypha
Note: Apocrypha are sometimes organized by origin (i.e. Judaic, Gnostic,
Catholic, etc.), as this facilitates a more accurate understanding of the
purposes of specific writings. This document, however, follows the more common
procedure of listing them by genre/subject matter. Thus, all Apocrypha, even
that written as late as the 10th century AD but dealing with Old Testament
figures and themes are listed here (likewise regarding the New
Testament Apocrypha below).
- 2 Enoch (Slavonic Book of the Secrets of Enoch). Discovered
in 1892. This book includes passages which were apparently cited by
Origen which cannot be attributed to the Ethiopic Henoch. It was composed in
Greek by an Alexandrian Jew at the beginning of our era. There is no Messiah
and no resurrection of the dead. The patriarch Enoch is taken through 7
heavens to the Divine throne. The book describes angels, stars, man's
destiny, moral excellence, and punishment for sin.
- Apocalypse of Abraham (Jewish Apocalypse): This book
describes Abraham's converision and the visions he sees as the angel Jael escorts
him through the heavens. Evil is attributed to man's free will.
- Testament of the 12 Patriarchs (Ebionic, i.e. Jewish with Christian
Accretions). Written c.192 A..D. The book includes testaments
from each son of Jacob. It states that the Messiah will come from the tribe
of Levi (elsewhere, however, from Judah); that he will be the eternal
High-Priest and civil ruler of Israel; and that sin will gradually cease
during his rule. The gates of paradise will be opened and the Israelites and
converted Gentiles will dwell there and eat of the tree of life. The
Messianic kingdom portrayed, as in the Ethiopian Henoch, is an eternal
paradise on earth.
- Ascension (Assumption) of Moses (Jewish Apoclypse). According
to Origen ("De Principiis", III, ii, 1) this is the literary
source for the dispute between Michael and Satan over the Moses' body cited
by the canonical New Testament (Jude 5:9). The book claims to be
a series of predictions which outline the entire future history of Israel,
delivered by Moses to Joshua in written form in order to confirm the Mosaic
laws and the admonitions of Deuteronomy. Special attention is given to the
impiety of Israel's Hasmonean rulers, Sadducean priests, an insolent monarch
who is clearly Herod the Great, and a powerful ruler from the West (Quintilius
Varus in 4 B.C.). The book was discovered Ceriani in the Ambrosian Library,
at Milan and published in 1861.
- Psalms of Solomon. This work is a collection of eighteen
psalms composed in Hebrew, probably around 63 B.C. by a Palestinian
Pharisee. These Psalms are significant in providing
evidence of Phariasaic views and attitudes during the time of Christ: they
affirm free will and the resurrection of the dead; they look for a Messiah,
but a purely human one, who will rule by holiness and justice, not by
violence.
- Book of Jannes and Mambres (Jewish Legend). Describes
the Egyptian magicians of Pharaoh who, in Exodus, reproduced some of the
Moses' miracles and whose names are explicitly mentioned by St Paul in II
Timothy, iii, 8. Lost.
- Apocalypse of Baruch (Jewish Apocalypse). This lengthy
book begins with Baruch, Jeremiah's secretary, announcing the doom of the
city and temple of Jerusalem by angels (not by the Babylonians, as in real
history). The book adds, however, that God has reserved a second,
pre-existent Holy City, since the world cannot exist without a Jerusalem. Original
sin is mentioned as well. A Latin fragment including chapters 78-87 was
known for many years before Monsignor Ceriani discovered a complete text in
Syriac (translated from Greek) in 1866 at the Ambrosian Library of Milan
have so enriched the field of ancient literature.
- Apocalypse of Daniel (Jewish Apocalypse): This book,
written by a Persian Jew of the twelfth century predicts two Messiahs: the
first, the son of Joseph (Christ), whose career would end in failure and
death, and the second, the son of David, who would liberate Israel and reign
on earth gloriously.
- Apocalypse of Adam (Gnostic). From the Nag Hammadi
manuscripts. Gives alternate version of creation / salvation.
- On the Origin of the World (Gnostic). From the Nag Hammadi
manuscripts. Gives alternate version of creation / salvation.
- Hypostasis of the Archons (Gnostic). From the Nag Hammadi
manuscripts. Gives alternate
version of creation / salvation.
- The Paraphrase of Shem (Gnostic). From the Nag Hammadi
manuscripts. Gives alternate version of creation / salvation.
- 4 Baruch (a.k.a. Paraleipomena Jeremiou). Jewish legend
recast or freely interpolated by later Christians.
- Prayer of Aseneth. A Christian composition based on
material from Jewish sources. Aseneth was Joseph's wife.
- Marriage of Aseneth. A Christian composition based on
material from Jewish sources. Aseneth was Joseph's
wife.
- Story of Aphikia (Ahikar). A Christian composition based
on material from Jewish sources. Aphikia was the wife of Jesus Sirach.
- Apocalypse of Esdras (Judaistic Christian). A Christian
composition based on material from Jewish sources.
- Testament of Abraham (Judaistic Christian). A Christian
composition based on material from Jewish sources.
- Naassene Psalm (Gnostic). An excerpt is preserved in
Hippolytus' Refutations.
- Book of Creation. A Christian composition based on material
from Jewish sources.
- Apocalyse of Elias (Elijah). Jewish legend recast or freely
interpolated by later Christians.
- Apocalyse of Moses. A Christian composition based on
material from Jewish sources.
- Apocalyse of Sophonias (Zephaniah). Jewish legend recast or
freely interpolated by later Christians.
- Prayer of Joseph. A Christian composition based on material
from Jewish sources.
- 2nd Treatise of the Great Seth (Gnostic). From the Nag
Hammadi manuscripts.
- Life of Adam and Eve. Exists in Latin, Slavonic, and Greek
versions.
- Apocalypse of Moses (a.k.a. Greek Life of Adam and Eve) (Judaistic
Christian).
- Testament of Job. A Christian composition based on material
from Jewish sources.
- Testament of Zacharias. A Christian composition based on
material from Jewish sources.
- Testament of the 3 Patriarchs. A Christian composition
based on material from Jewish sources.
- Testament of Solomon
- Odes of Solomon (Gnostic).
- Armenian Apocrypha about Adam and Eve
- Book of Jasher
- Letter of Aristeas to Philocrates
6. New Testament Canon
The most common Christian New Testament Canon of the 27
books listed below was no less controversial in the early days of the Church
than the Christian Old Testament Canon was, though since that time it has
become notably less controversial. As noted above, the NT canon should not,
however, be regarded as free from controversy:
- Luther, based on dogmatic reasons and the judgment of antiquity, judged
Hebrews, James, Jude, and Apocalypse as altogether uncanonical; Lutherans of
the 17th century excluded not only Hebrews, James, Jude, and Apocalypse, but
2 Peter, 2 and 3 John as well;
- Zwingli considered John's Apocalypse apocrypha;
- Oecolampadia attributed an inferior status to James, Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and
3 John.
- To the present day, the Armenian Church includes 3rd Corinthians in its NT
canon.
- To the present day, the Syrian Nestorians exclude the four smaller
Catholic Epistles (James, 1 Peter, 1 John, and <) and Apocalypse, like
the ancient East Syrians.
- To the present day, the Coptic-Arabic Church includes 1 & 2 Clement
and the Apostolic Constitutions in its NT canon.
- To the present day, the New Testament canon of the Ethiopic Church
contains the Apostolic Constitutions.
Gospel of Matthew |
Ephesians |
Philemon |
Gospel of Mark |
Philippians |
James |
Gospel of Luke |
Colossians |
1 Peter |
Gospel of John |
1 Thessalonians |
2 Peter |
Acts of the Apostles |
2 Thessalonians |
1 John |
Romans |
1 Timothy |
2 John |
1 Corinthians |
2 Timothy |
3 John |
2 Corinthians |
Titus |
Jude |
Galatians |
Hebrew |
Revelation (Apocalypse) |
Note: From the time Eusebius first drew attention to them until the Council
of Trent, the three following passages were the subject of controversy, and they
are (mostly unconsciously) accepted by Protestants on the authority of Trent
against the evidence of the earliest MSS.
- Mk 16:9-20 (not in earliest and most reliable MSS). In Reformation times,
Cardinal Cajetan cited Jerome's unfavorable view of the authenticity of this
pericope.
- Jn 7:53-8:, the famous pericope about the woman caught in adultery, is not in
the earliest and most reliable MSS. In Reformation times, Erasmus rejected
this section as unauthentic.
- Luke 22:43-44 (about Christ's tears being like blood). Also present in
some early manuscripts and absent in others.
- Third Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians. This work
includes a letter from the pastors of the church of Corinth, to which the
primary text is an answer. The entire work is a forgery, suggested by the
mention of an additional Pauline letter in I Cor. 5: 9 and 7:1, written by a
Catholic presbyter about l60-170, as a disguised attack on some of the most
significant Gnostict errors. The ancient Syrian (Edessene) Church revered
this letter as canonical until the fifth century; later the Armenians took
it into the Armenian New Testament. No Latin or Greek writer mentions this
pseudograph, though Greek and Latin copies have been found. Although it was
circulated independently, it was originally part of the Acts of St. Paul
(see below).
7. Additional Christian Apocrypha, listed by genre
- Gospels
- Gospel of Thomas (Gnostic). Written c.200 A..D. The
most famous of the apocryphal gospels. It begins, "These are the
secret words which the living Jesus spoke, and which the twin, Judas
Thomas, wrote down." Its teachings decidedly negate the unique
divinity of Christ, who in this gospel tells Thomas: "I am not your
master. Because you have drunk, you have become drunk from the bubbling
stream which I have measured out.... He who will drink from my mouth
will become as I am: I myself shall become he, and the things that are
hidden will be revealed to him." In 1897 and 1903 fragments from a
Greek version of this gospel were discovered at Oxyrhynchus, Egypt. A
complete manuscript in Coptic was discovered in 1945 at Nag Hammmadi,
Egypt, along with other Gnostic texts, including the Gospel of Philip,
the Gospel of Truth, the Apocryphon (Secret Teachings) of John, and
other Gnostic documents.
- "Secret Gospel of Mark." In 1958, Prof.
Morton Smith discovered a letter to Theodore attributed to Clement of
Alexandria at the Mar Saba monastery, southeast of Jerusalem. This letter
asserts that a secret gospel written by the Evangelist Mark was preserved
for a spiritual elite at a library in Alexandria. The author states that it
was not to circulated among the churches in general and to be denied publicly
if necessary. A fragment of the secret gospel itself is quoted, which
mentions that a young man whom Christ had raised from the dead came to him
in the evening, "wearing a linen cloth over his naked body. And he
remained with him that night, for Jesus taught him the mystery of the
Kingdom of God." The author of the letter assures Theodore that the alleged
phrase "naked man with naked man" is not contained in the secret
gospel.
- Gospel of Truth (Gnostic). This document is part of
the Nag Hammadi collection. Many scholars believe it
is the same "Gospel of Truth" criticized as "full of
blasphemy" by Irenaus (Bishop of Lyons, c. 180) in his 5-volume Destruction
and Overthrow of Falsely So-called Knowledge.
- Gospel of Philip (Gnostic). This document, part of the Nag
Hammadi collection, is a treatise on Gnostic sacramental theology). It includes
the following unorthodox account: ". . . the companion of the [Savior
is] Mary Magdalene. [But Christ loved] her more than [all] the disciples,
and used to kiss her [often] on her [mouth]. The rest of [the disciples were
offended] . . . They said to him, "Why do you love her more than all of
us?" The Savior answered and said to them, "Why do I not love you
as (I love) her?" Epiphanius and Leontius of
Byzantium mention this Gospel.
- Gospel to the Egyptians (Gnostic). This document is part of
the Nag Hammadi collection. It claims to be "the
[sacred book] of the Great Invisible [Spirit]."
- Arabic Gospel of the Infancy of the Savior (Catholic origin). This
is an orginally Gnostic work with Catholic retouchings, c.600 A.D, which the
Syrian Nestorians used widely. This Gospel records many events in the
canonical gospels as well as miracles in Egypt found in no other Gospel,
including: healings of leprosy through Jesus' bathing water, healings of
diseases through clothes worn by Christ. It also includes the legend of the
robbers Titus and Dumachus: the Holy Family fell into there hands on the
Flight to Egypt; Titus bribes Dumachus not to molest them; the Infant Christ
prophecies that in thirty years they would meet again and Titus would be
crucified with him on His right and Dumachus on His left and that the former
would accompany Him into paradise.
- Gospel of the Hebrews. This Gospel is very ancient and
was the only gospel used by the Palestinian Jewish-Christian
"Nazarene" community for some time before being replaced by
the canonical Gospel of Matthew, which may well bear some literary
dependence on it. It was probably read as
Scripture in some non-Palestinian churches as well, judging from the
respect it is accorded by Clement of
Alexandria, Origen, Eusebius, and St. Epiphanius. Jerome translated it
from the original Aramaic into Greek. Only twenty-four fragments have
been preserved in the writings of Church fathers, which include much in
common with Matthew as well as a number of narratives and sayings of
Jesus, not found in the canonical Gospels.
- Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew (Catholic origin). Written ~400
A.D. It states that Mary was betrothed to Joseph at the age of fourteen and
narrates the flight into Egypt with the following embellishments: dragons,
lions, and other wild desert beasts adore the infant; palm-trees bow their
heads that the Holy Family may pluck their fruit; the idols of Egypt are
shattered when the Divine Child enters the land.
- Gospel of the Nativity of Mary. Written at an unknown but
late date. It is simply a recast version of the Gospel of
Pseudo-Matthew, which stops at the birth of Jesus
- Gospel of Gamaliel (Catholic origin). This name has
been given to a number of similar Coptic fragments which quote from John's
gospel and are attributed to Gamaliel (cf. Acts 5:34). Other scholars
suppose these fragments formed part of a "Gospel of the Twelve
Apostles"
- Protoevangelium (Proto-Gospel) of James (Catholic origin). Written c.150
A..D. It describes the birth, education, and marriage of the Virgin Mary
(chapter 1-11), including the following popular legends: Mary was the
miraculous offspring of Joachim and Anna, previously childless; her parents
took her to the temple at age 3 to fulfill their vow to dedicate her to its
service; the high priest chose Joseph for her husband when she was 12, in accordance
with a miraculous sign, a dove coming out of Joseph's rod and resting on his
head. This book is of principle value historically in attesting to the early
date of the veneration of Mary.
- Gospel of John concerning the Falling Asleep (Death) of Mary (Catholic
origin). Attributed to St. John the Apostle, this popular
book was widely read and translated in the early church. It describes
the death of Mary and may have some relation to the origin of the
doctrine of the Assumption of Mary, professed by Catholic and Orthodox
Christians. According to the book, all the living apostles were
supernaturally translated to the Virgin's deathbed and the apostles who
had died were resuscitated so they could attend as well. A Jew who
ventures to touch her body instantly loses both hands, but the apostles
pray for him and his hands are subsequently restored. Christ and a
company of angels descend to receive Mary's soul, after which the
apostles carry her body to Gethsemani and place it in a tomb. The body
is then taken up alive to Heaven.
- Gospel of Bartholomew. Written probably in the early 4th C.
Among extant Church writings, it is first alluded to by St. Jerome.
Fragments of it have been found in old Coptic manuscripts.
- Gospel of the Egyptians (Gnostic). This gospel survives
only in scanty citations by Church Fathers (Clement of Alexandria, Origen,
Hippolytus, and Epiphanius), who all affirm its widespread use by
heretical sects, mostly Gnostics, in Egypt. The surviving exerpts tend
towards the Encratite condemnation of marriage, and a pantheistic
Gnosticism.
- Gospel of Peter (Docetic). Written c.190 A..D. A long
fragment of this gospel in Greek, describing the Passion, Burial, and
Resurrection, was discovered by French archaeologists at Akhmоn,
Egypt, in the winter of 1886-87. The gospel's existence had been known since
the early Church, as several Church Fathers mention it as a Docetic work.
The Gospel of Peter is historically significant because its literary
dependence on the four canonical gospels provides evidence of their early
acceptance. It is probably neither purely legendary nor purely historical.
The extant fragment contains one episode which may preserve an authentic
extra-canonical tradition: Christ is placed in mockery upon a throne by His
tormentors.
- Infancy Gospel of Thomas (Greek Text A, Greek Text B, Latin Text). Prior
to the Nag Hammadi discovery, this gospel was known simply as the Gospel
of Thomas. It includes many extravagant and sometimes offensive episodes
from Christ's boyhood, portraying him as a miracle-worker and
intellectual prodigy. It is the only gospel to describes part of the
hidden life of Christ between the ages of five and twelve. Some miracles
are worked at times for childish fancy, other from beneficence and still
others from harsh retribution. The miracle account of the boy Jesus
forming clay pigeons, and their coming to live and flying awat when he
clapped is also recounted in the Qu'ran.
- Gospel of Matthias. Though no document of this name
survives, Origen and Eusebius mention it as part of heretical literature.
References to a "secret discourse" of the Apostle Matthias to the
Basilidean Gnostics (Hippolytus) and to a "Tradition of Matthias"
(Clement of Alexandria) may also refer to this work.
- Gospel of the 12 Apostles. This document, the subject of
scholarly debate, was mentioned by Origin in the 3rd C. and was probably written
in Greek and used by Gnostic Ebionites from the second century.
- Gospel of Barnabas. Not extant; almost nothing known but
its name.
- Gospel of St. Andrew. Not extant; almost nothing
known but its name. It may well be identical to the Gnostic "Acts of
Andrew."
- Gospel of Thaddeus. Not extant; almost nothing known but
its name.
- Gospel of Eve. Not extant; almost nothing known but its
name.
- Gospel of Judas Iscariot (Gnostic). This document, used by
the Gnostic sect of Cainites, glorifies the traitor.
- Gospel of James
- Gospel of the Lord (by Marcion).
- Gospel of Mary [Magdalene]
- Gospel According to the Ebionites (Jewish-Christian).
- Dialogue of the Savior (Gnostic).
This document is part of the Nag Hammadi collection.
- Heralcon's Commentary to the Canonical Gospel of John (Gnostic). Written
c. 160-170 and highly influencial. Reservations
in the early Church regarding the canonization of the Gospel of John were
due its widespread use by the Gnostics. Fragments of this commentary are
preserved in Origen's Commentary on the Gospel of John.
- Ptolemy's Commentary on the Gospel of John Prologue (Gnostic).
preserved in Irenaeus' Against Heresies.
- Acts
- Acts of Paul (Catholic). These Acts begin with a
fictional flight of St. Paul from Antioch of Pisidia and end with his
martyrdom at Rome. The narrative development clearly relies on the
canonical Acts and Epistles, buts adds numerous details of
extra-canonical marvels and characters, as well as changing some traits
of some of people mentioned in the canonical writings. During the first
few centuries of the Church, these Acts were extremely widely-read in
both East and West, to such an extent that Eusebius classes them among
the antilegomena, or works having locally quasi-canonical authority.
Since these Acts were mentioned by several ecclesiastical writers, but
unknown, they were believed to be have been permanently lost until a
Coptic papyrus manuscript, torn to shreds, was found in Egypt in 1899,
whose contents matched those mentioned by these writers. This discovery
showed that the long-known Acts of Paul and Thecla, the apocryphal
correspondence of St. Paul with the Corinthian Church, and the Martyrdom
of St. Paul, as well as other episodes, are in fact only excerpts of a
single, original Acts of Paul. Tertullian (De Baptismo, xvii) recounts
that an African priest living in Asia-Minor forged this pseudo-history
and was thereafter deposed from an ecclesiastical charge, confessing to
have forged the book out of love for St. Paul.
- Acts of Paul and Thecla (Catholic). Written c.180 A..D.
These Acts recount Paul's conversion of Thecla, a young woman of
Iconium, who therafter left her bridegroom to live a life of virginity
and missionary activity, traveling and preaching with St. Paul. She
endures persecution and is miraculously saved from the fire and the
savage beasts of the arena. The prominent emphasis on eschewing marital
relations probably indicates influence from the Encratite heresy. These
Acts freely add fictional characters and event to the canonical material
including a "journey of the Apostles." These Acts were
previously part of the larger work, the Acts of Paul, but were detached
from them at any early date, perhaps for use in the Church as festal
lections. Despite its being a confessed forgery, these Acts enjoyed
great and persistent popularity even in the Middle Ages, probably
because of the author's careful limitation of flagrantly-fictional
material (unique among writers of apocrypha), simplicity, clarity, and vigor.
- Acts of Philip (Catholic). Written c.350 A..D. The
extant Greek fragments contain nine of the fifteen Acts. Acts 1-7 are
apparently independent legends, and Acts 8-14 a single narrative
building on ancient though confused traditions of the missionary
activity of an Apostle Philip in Hierapolis of Phrygia. There are
separate Coptic Acts of Philip as well.
- Acts and Martyrdom of St. Matthew the Apostle (Abyssinian). Written
c.550 A..D. A Latin document preserves this legend, a sixth-century
rescension of an earlier work. These Acts describe St. Matthew's martyrdom
as occurring in Abyssinia in an attempt to date the establishment of the
Abyssinian Church (actually in the fourth century) back to the Apostolic
times.
- Martyrdom of the Holy Apostle Andrew (Gnostic). Survives
in a Latin text, not earlier than the fifth century. It claims to be an
eyewitness report by "presbyters and deacons of the Church of
Achaia." One of three extant documents once
part of a single, non-extent original Gnostic document, the Acts of St.
Andrew.
- Acts of Andrew and Matthias (Matthew) (Gnostic). One of
three extant documents once part of a single, non-extent original
Gnostic document, the Acts of St. Andrew.
- Acts of Peter and Andrew (Gnostic). One of three extant
documents once part of a single, non-extent original Gnostic document,
the Acts of St. Andrew.
- Acts of the Holy Apostle Thomas (Gnostic). This
document includes the literarily notable myth,
"Hymn of the Pearl" and is the best preserved of the
apocryphal Acts. These Acts relate Thomas' deeds and martyrdom in India.
Historical research has moreover indicated elements of truth in the
narrative's setting. A major theme is exalting the dualistic teaching to
abstain from conjugal intercourse. Greek, Syriac, and Ethiopic
recensions have been found, but scholars favor attributing the original
to a Syrian author of the third century, perhaps inspired by the
translation of the remains of St. Thomas to Edessa in 232. Epiphanius
and Augustine mention that heretics used the Acts of St. Thomas.
- Acts of the Holy Apostle Thaddaeus (Catholic). Written c.250 A.D.
This work exists in Greek as the Acts of Thaddaeus as well as in Syriac
as "The Teaching of Addai, the Apostle" (first published in
1876 and dating to c.400), as well as in Eusebius' Eccesiastical
History. For contents, refer below to Epistles: Epistles of Jesus Christ and Agbar, King of Edessa.
- Acts of Bartholomew (Nestorian). Written c.500 A.D. The
Greek text recounts how Bartholomew overthrew idolatry and converted a
king and his subjects in India, all apparently fiction.
- Martyrdom of the Holy and Glorious Apostle Bartholomew. A
Greek document from the fifth or six century preserves this work,
apparently coming from the same legendary tradition about St.
Bartholomew as the Acts.
- Acts of John (Docetic/Gnostic). Includes famous
sections, "The Hymn of Jesus" and "The Mystery of the
Cross." The author, writing, under the name of a disciple of St.
John, called Leucius, may have also written the Acts of St. Peter and
Acts of St. Andrew.
- Acts of John by Pseudo-Prochorus. A Catholic
working-over of Gnostic material. Compare the canonical Acts 6:5.
- Acts of St. James the Greater, son of Zebedee. These
Acts are preserved in Latin, Coptic, Ethiopic, and Armenian histories of
his missionary activity and death. The Latin Acts are probably from the
third century.
- Acts and Martyrdom of St. James the Less (Coptic and Armenian).
These Acts depend mostly on the Hegesippus tradition, preserved for us
by Eusebius in Hist. Eccl., IV, xxii.
- Acts of Peter (Gnostic with Catholic revision). This
document recounts St. Peter's triumph over Simon Magus at Rome and his
subsequent upside-down crucifixion. These Acts are apparently of great
antiquity, certainly not later than c.250, as Commodian (c. 250)
certainly used our extant Acts of Peter. It exists in Greek and Latin
MSS. This document is taken from a manuscript entitled "Actus Petri
cum Simone," which is a superior translation of the same material
as the Martyrdom of Peter (below), but does not include the martyrdom
itself.
- Martyrdom of Peter. This document exists in Greek and a
Latin. The Latin version is attributed to Pope Linus. Patristic
citations indicate that both are the conclusion of an ancient Greek
narrative entitled "Acts, or Circuits of St. Peter," much of
which is also preserved in the Acts of Peter (above).
- Acts of Peter and Paul (Catholic). Written c.200 A..D.
This work is the main historical source for details of the martyrdom of
the two great Apostles. They are also sigificant historically in
indicating the close concord between the Apostolic founders of the Roman
Church. These Acts recount: Paul's departures from the island of Mileto;
he secretly enters Italy; his companion (mistaken for Paul) is beheaded
at Puteoli; that city being swallowed up by the sea in retribution;
Peter joyfully welcomes Paul at Rome; they preach together and
converting multitudes, including the Empress; Simon Magus engaging the
Apostles in a contest in the presence of Nero (Simon attempts a flight
to heaven but falls in the Via Sacra and is dashed to pieces); Paul is
beheaded on the Ostian Way; Peter is crucified at his request
upside-down; "Quo Vadis?" legend; Burial of he Apostles.
- Acts of Peter and the Twelve Apostles (Gnostic). This
document is part of the Nag Hammadi collection.
- Book of Thomas the Contender (Gnostic). This document
is part of the Nag Hammadi collection. Contains alleged sayings of Jesus
and pericopes of incidents in His life.
- Acts of Simon and Jude (Catholic). These Acts recount
the miracles, conversions, and martyrdoms of these Apostles in Persia
and Babylonia. Although the historicity of theses accounts is difficult
to conclude, the historical setting of this document agrees remarkably
with what is known of the conditions in the Parthian empire in the first
century A.D.
- Gesta Matthias (Catholic). These Acts, forged by a 12th
Century monk in Treves, are the latest historically. They claim to have
been derived from a Hebrew manuscript and serve as a prelude to an account
of the translation of the sacred relic and the
body of St. Matthias Treves, where they are later rediscovered.
- Acts of Barnabas (Catholic). Written c.500 A.D.
probably by a Cypriot. They are ascribed to St. Mark the Evangelist, and
simply retell the mutual relations and activities of Barnabas, Mark, and
Paul, as recorded in the canonical Acts of the Apostles.
- Acts of Xanthippe and Polyxena. Written c.270 A.D. Also
describes exploits of St. Paul and St. Andrew.
- Acts of St. Mark. Written in the fourth or fifth
century in Alexandria
- Acts of St. Luke (Coptic). Written at the end of fourth
century or later.
- Acts of St. Timothy. Written after 425 by an Ephesian.
- Acts of St. Titus. Written between 400-700 by a man of
Cretan origin.
- Acts of Andrew. Written c.260 A.D.
- Passing of Mary
- The Martyrdom of Matthew (Coptic).
- Acts of the Holy Apostle and Evangelist John the Theologian
- Consummation of Thomas
- Epistles
- Epistle of Barnabas. Written during the same time as
some canonical New Testament books, c. 100. The passage on the Jewish
sabbath is generally consider millenianarian. Each day is described as
1000 years; thus since God created all things in six days, He will
surely complete all things in six days (millennia) as well and He will
rest in glory on the seventh day (millenium).
- 1 Clement. Written during the same time as some
canonical New Testament books, c. 96.
- 7 letters of Ignatius of Antioch. Written during
the same time as some canonical New Testament books, c. 110.
- 2 Clement
- Epistle of the Apostles
- Correspondence of Paul and Seneca. Consists of 14
paragraph-length letters (8 from Seneca and 6 replies from Paul). They were mentioned
by Jerome (de Viris Illustr., xii) as widely read but without any
judgment, and were therefore certainly written no later than
the second half of the fourth century. The idea for the pseudo-epistles
comes from early traditions of Seneca's leanings towards Christianity
and the known historical fact that Paul and Seneca lived in Rome at the
same time.
- Paul's 3rd letter to the Corinthians. See New Testament
Canon above.
- Paul's letter to the Laodecians. Claims to be the
letter referred to in Col 4.16, which most probably refers to the
canonical "Ephesians," also a circular letter. This document
is very short (20 lines) and consists mostly of material from
Philippians and other Epistles pieced together without logical aim. Only
Latin manuscripts exist, though there is literary evidence of being
translated from a Greek original. This extant document appears to be
distinct from the pseudo-Laodicean letter which the Muratorian Fragment
attributes to the heretic Marcion. It was frequently copied in the
Middle Ages, and enjoyed a certain degree of respect despite its
suspicious character and the judgments against it by and St. Jerome and
the Muratorian fragment.
- Paul's letter to the Alexandrians. Not extant. The
existence of this epistle is known only from the Muratorian fragment,
where it is attributed to Marcion together with the Epistle to the
Laodecians.
- Letter of Peter to Philip (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection.
- Pseudo-Epistle of Peter to James the Less (Jewish-Christian). Peter
beseeches James to keep his (Peter's) preaching secret.
- Letter of St. John the Apostle to a Dropsical Man. Included
in the Acts of St. John by the pseudo-Prochorus.
- Letter of St. James, the Bishop of Jerusalem, to Quadratus.
Preserved in Armenian.
- The Epistle of the Blessed Virgin to St. Ignatius Martyr.
In this short (9 lines) letter, Mary exhorts Ignatius to faith and
courage. There is a reply from Ignatius as well. It was written in Latin
at a late date.
The Epistle of the Blessed Virgin to the Messanienses.
This brief letter, also very short and written in Latin at a late date,
addresses the inhabitants of Messina, Sicily, exhorts them to faith, and
blesses them.
The Epistle of the Blessed Virgin to the Florentines.
This short letter (4 lines) is of unknown origin and is cited in a
sermon of Savonarola, on October 25, 1495.
Letter of Lentulus. This brief letter claims to be
written by Publius Lentulus, the "President of the People of
Jerusalem," to "the Roman Senate and People." It
describes Christ appearance and is very unhistorical, inasmuch as the
office and name of the president of Jerusalem never existed.
Ptolemy's Letter to Flora (Gnostic). Exerpts are
preserved in Epiphanius' Against Heresies.
Epistles of Jesus Christ and Agbar, King of Edessa (Catholic). Two
letters with an introduction survive in Eusebius (Historia Ecclesiastica,
I, xiii), who claims to have translated it himself from Syriac documents
in the archives of Edessa. In King Abgar V's letter, he asks Christ to
come heal him, confessing Christ to be a god, or the son of a god, and
moreover offers Christ protection against the Jews. Christ replies:
"Blessed are you because you have believed in Me without seeing Me.
For it is written that those who have seen Me, will not believe Me; and
that those who have not seen Me will believe and love Me. But as to your
prayer that I come to you, it is necessary that I fulfil here all that
for which I have been sent, and that after I have fulfilled it, that I
be taken up to Him who has sent Me. But after my taking up I shall send
you one of My disciples, who will heal your pains, and keep life for you
and yours." Eusebius adds that after Christ's Ascension, the apostle
"Judas Thomas" sent Thaddeus, one of the seventy disciples, to
the king and Thaddeus cures the King of his disease, and preaches Christ
to the assembled people in the year 340 of the Seleucid era (= A.D.
28-29). The "Teaching of Addai" is a Syrian apocryphon which
includes additions.
Apocalypses (see Old Testament Apocrypha for other Apocalypses)
- (First) Apocalypse of James (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection.
- (Second) Apocalypse of James (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection.
- Apocalypse of the Virgin. Written at an unknown but very
late (medieval) date. Probably the result of extravagant devotion, it
describes Mary's descent to Limbo. It exists in Greek manuscripts.
- Apocalypse of Sedrach. Written at an unknown but very late
date.
- (Traditional) Apocalypse of Paul. Written c. 380.
This work claims to reveal the secrets which the Apostle saw during his
transport to the third heaven (II Cor. 12:2). One Greek and one Latin
version exist (the original was in Greek). A preface states that this work
was found in a marble case under the house of Paul at Tarsus, in the reign
of King Theodosius (A.D. 379-395), and that it was taken away by an angel
after being recorded by the author.
- (Gnostic) Apocalypse of Paul. Though long known to exist
from St. Epiphanius' mention of it, this document was
considered lost until discovered as part of the
Nag Hammadi collection.
- (Traditional) Apocalypse of Peter. Written c.130 A.D., it
is one of the earliest specimens of non-canonical literature. In this
Apocalypse, Christ appears to the Twelve on a mountain and shows them the
glory of two departing brethren, the splendor of heaven, and terrors of
hell. The Muratorian Fragment, written at Rome in the latter part of the
second century, mentions this apocalypse side-by-side with the canonical
Apocalypse of John as the only apocalypses received in the Church, added
that some Christians, however, do not acknowledge the Apocalypse of Peter.
In many parts of the early Church, this Apocalypse was given canonical
authority; Clement of Alexandria even wrote a commentary on it and Eusebius
(Hist. Eccl., VI, xiv, 1), places it almost with the antilegomena or
better class of disputed writings. Despite Jerome's rejection, it was publicly
read in churches of Palestine as late as the middle of the fifth century.
Though known to have existed from Patristic writings, it was considered lost
until a MSS was found at Akhmоn in 1886-87 along with a MSS of the
Gospel of Peter. The identity of the MSS with the ancient Apocalpse of Peter
was established by comparison of the text with quotations of Clement of
Alexandria.
- (Gnostic) Apocalypse of Peter. This document is part of the
Nag Hammadi collection. Not to be confused with the Apocalypse of Peter
known long before the Nag Hammadi texts were discovered. Arabic and Ethiopic
recensions of an this apocalypse exist as well.
- Vision of Paul
- Revelation of John the Theologian
- Passing (Assumption) of Mary. Written ~400 A.D. One Greek
and two Latin versions.
Pilate Literature
- Gospel of Nicodemus (Acts of Pilate). Includes 2 parts, the
first written c. 150-400 and the second written c.400. There are two Greek
and one Latin versions of each part.
- Report of Pontius Pilate to Tiberius. Later Latin
fabrication.
- Report of Pontius Pilate (to Ceasar). Written at an
unknown but late date. Two Greek versions. This letter, contained in the
Acts of Peter and Paul, claims to have been written by Pilate to the
Emperor Claudius. Pilate blames the Jews for persecuting their promised
Holy One and tricking him into condemning him to death on accusations of
sorcery. Pilate also relate Christ's miracles and how the soldiers whom
the governor had placed at the tomb were bribed by Jewish leaders to be
silent, though they divulged this fact after the Resurrection. Pilate
concludes with a warning against the Jews' mendacity.
- Letter of Pontius Pilate (to the Roman Emperor). Written
at an unknown but late date.
- Giving Up of Pontius Pilate. Written at an unknown but
late date. Oldest source of legends of the latter part of Pilate's life.
- Death of Pilate. Written at an unknown but late date.
- Letter of Herod to Pilate. Found
in Greek and Syriac in a manuscript of the sixth or seventh century.
- Letter of Pilate to Herod. Found
in Greek and Syriac in a manuscript of the sixth or seventh century.
Other Writings
- Shepherd of Hermes. Perhaps written by the brother of
Pope St. Pius I (~140-55) or perhaps by the Hermes mentioned by St. Paul
(Rom 16:14); the book refers to Clement as Pope (89-99). This work, long
considered authoritative in many parts of the early church, was consists
of 5 visions, 12 mandates (commandments), and 4 similitudes (parables).
Hermes may have been Hermes describes how Rhoda comes to him with
Gods rebuke that he once thought of her inappropriately (I would
like to have such a beautiful woman as my wife) when helping her out
of the Tiber river, where he saw her bathing. He is instructed to pray
for his lustful sons and immoderately talking wife. He has 4 visions of
the church, which appears to him first as an aged women (weak and
helpless from the sins of the faithful); then made younger (through
penance); then quite young but still with white hair (reinvigorated with
forgiveness); finally as a shapely (at the end of the days). She gives
him a boo, which he is to copy and give to the authorities of the Church
that it be taught to all. In the fifth vision, "the Angel of
repentance" comes to his house in the guise of a shepherd and gives
him 12 commandments: belief in one God, simplicity, truthfulness,
chastity, long-suffering, faith, fear, continence, confidence,
cheerfulness, humility (against those who seek authority in the church,
perhaps including Marcion), and good desires. The shepherd also explains
ten more parables which Hermes sees in visions. The most significant (9)
elaborates on the parable of the building of a tower (from the 3rd
vision): the tower is the Church, and the stones of which it is built
are the faithful.
- Apocryphon (Secret Book) of James (Gnostic). This
document is part of the Nag Hammadi collection. Contains alleged
sayings of Jesus and pericopes of incidents in His life.
- Apocryphon (Secret Book) of John (Gnostic). Claims to
contain "the mysteries [and the] things hidden in silence"
which Jesus taught to his disciple John. Gives an alternative version of
the creation / salvation. Contained in the Akmim Codex and Nag Hammadi
manuscripts. This document is certainly the same
"Apocryphon of John" criticized by Irenaus (Bishop of Lyons,
c. 180) in his Destruction and Overthrow of Falsely So-called
Knowledge.
- Discourse on the Eighth and Ninth (Gnostic). This
document is part of the Nag Hammadi collection. It is a liturgical
text.
- A Valentinian Exposition (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection. It is a liturgical text.
- The Prayer of Thanksgiving (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection. It is a liturgical text.
- Testimony of Truth (Gnostic). This document is part of
the Nag Hammadi collection. It recounts the Garden of Eden temptation
episode from the serpent's point of view: the serpent (often a symbol of
divine wisdom in Gnostic literature), persuades Adam and Eve to partake
of knowledge which "the Lord" jealously hides from them,
threatening them with death, and expelling them from Paradise when they
achieve it.
- The Treatise on the Resurrection (Gnostic). This
document is part of the Nag Hammadi collection and concerns general
Gnostic themes.
- The Tripartite Tractate, a.k.a. The First Thought in Three Forms
(Gnostic). This document is part of the Nag Hammadi
collection and concerns general Gnostic themes
- Eugnostos the Blessed (Gnostic). This document is part
of the Nag Hammadi collection and concerns general Gnostic themes
- The Teachings of Silvanus (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection and concerns general Gnostic themes
- The Thunder, Perfect Mind (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection. Its subject matter includes
the feminine deific principle, as seen in the
following: "For I am the first and the last. / I am the honored one
and the scorned one./ I am the whore and the holy one./ I am the wife
and the virgin..../ I am the barren one, and many are her sons.... / I
am the silence that is incomprehensible..../ I am the utterance of my
name."
- Thought of Norea (Gnostic). This document is part of
the Nag Hammadi collection. Its subject matter includes the femine
deific principle.
- Sophia (Wisdom) of Jesus Christ (Gnostic). Contained in
the Akhmim Codex, which Dr. Rheinhardt acquired in Cairo in 1896, along
with the Apocryphon of John and the Gospel According to Mary.
Its subject matter includes the femine deific principle
- Exigesis on the Soul (Gnostic). This document is part
of the Nag Hammadi collection. Its subject matter includes the femine
deific principle.
- Pistis Sophia (Gnostic). Excerpts from these
"Books of the Savior" are part of the
Askew codex, bought by the British Museum in 1795, having been
previously acquired by a Dr. Askew from an unknown source.
- Narrative of Joseph of Arimathea. Written at an unknown
but late date. It provides imagined details of the two thieves
crucified with Christ, and the begging of the body from Pilate. It was
apparently very popular in Byzantine East during the Middle Ages. Many
Greek Manuscripts survive, the oldest of which dates to the twelfth
century.
- Testamentum Domini Nostri Jesu (Syriac). An extract was
published in 1856 and a full Syriac text in 1899. The work begins with
an apocalypse of the approaching day of Antichrist which claims to have
been spoken by Christ after His Resurrection and after a very loose
connection, proceeds to the main part of the book in which Christ
decrees laws for the governance and ritual of the Church, inlcuding
liturgical observances prevalent in the author's own time period.It was
probably written in the fourth or fifth century probably by a
Monophysite. The apocalyptic opening has also been found in a Latin
manuscript of the eighth century.
- Narrative of Zosimus. Written at an unknown date.
- Didache (Teaching of the Twelve). Written during the
same period as many of the canonical New Testament books, c. AD 70.
- The Preaching of Peter or Kerygma Petri. This very
ancient document claims to be Peter's account of his missionary
journeys. It includes doctrine as well, and presents Peter as a teacher
of the Gentiles. Only scanty fragments remain of this work. Its
authenticity was attested by Clement of Alexandria but denied by
Eusebius, though what remains does not evidence heterodox origin. Scholars
suspect its creation was suggested by 2 Peter 1:5. It was probably
written during the first quarter of the second century, as attested by
its accreditation in the days of Clement of Alexandria (c. 140-215) and
its mention in the "Gnostic Heracleon" (c. 160-170). There is
also a Syriac "Preaching of Simon Peter in the City of Rome."
- Preaching of Paul. This work is mentioned only once in
the Father ("De Rebaptismo," pseudo-Cyprian) and portrays
Christ as confessing personal sins, and his mother forcing him to
receive baptism.
- Two Ways or Judicium Petri. This moralizing treatise of
Jewish-Christian origin is prefixed to the Didache and ascribed to St.
Peter. It was most likely based on the so-called "Epistle of
Barnabas".
- History of Joseph the Carpenter. Written ~400 A.D.
- Avenging of the Savior. Written ~700 A.D.
- Prayer of the Apostle Paul (Gnostic). This document is
part of the Nag Hammadi collection. It is a liturgical text.
- Three Steles of Seth (Gnostic). This document is part
of the Nag Hammadi collection. It is a liturgical text.
- Community Rule
- Ephraim of Syria`s Hymn Against Bar-Daisan.
Early Christian Manuscripts and disputed books
Early MSS of parts of the NT
1). In the original Greek alone, there are over 5,000 manuscripts and
manuscript fragments of portions of the NT that have been preserved from the
early centuries of Christianity.
2). The John Rylands manuscript, containing part of the Gospel of John and
dating to AD 125-130, is no more than forty years older than the Gospel
itself.
3). The Chester Beatty papyri, dating from AD 200, contains major portions
of the NT.
4). More than thirty papyri date from the late second through early third
centuries.
5). Four very reliable and nearly complete NTs date from the forth and
fifth centuries (Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus from roughly 350).
6). There are 8,000 copies of the Vulgate, the Latin translation of Jerome
in 382-405.
7). There are 350 copies of Syriac versions of the New Testament, most
written in the 400s.
About the LXX (Septuagint): Jews and early Christian regarded this
translation from Hebrew to Greek as divinely inspired. As Eusebius and Augustine
describe, the 70 Jewish scholars called upon by the Pharaoh to produce a Greek
version of their scriptures for the Alexandria library all, working entirely
independently, arrived at a single Greek rendering for every single verse.
Significant differences between the LXX and the the Hebrew Masoretic text (9th
century) include:
- The LXX uses a word meaning virgin in Isaiah 7:14, whereas uses an
ambiguous word, more likely to be translated young woman.
- Genesis 6 genealogies
List of most important LXX Manuscripts:
- Codex Vaticanus (4th C). OT includes Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Judith, Tobit,
Baruch, and the Epistle of Jeremiah (Wenham 148-49).
- Codex Sinaiticus (4th C). OT includes Tobit, Judith, First Maccabees and
Fourth Maccabees, Wisdom, and Ecclesiasticus (Wenham 149). NT includes the
27 plus Epistle of Barnabus and Shepherd of Hermas.
- Codex Alexandrinus (5th C). OT includes Tobit, Judith, First, Second,
Third, Fourth Maccabees, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Psalms of Solomon (Wenham
149). NT includes the 27 plus 1 and 2 Clement
- Codex Claromontanus (6th C). NT includes the 27 less Phil, 1 and 2 Thes,
and Heb, plus Epistle of Barnabus, Shepherd of Hermas, Acts of Paul, and
Revelation of Peter (Hartono "New" 2).
Arguments regarding the Catholic Deuterocanonical Books
The following reasons are often cited to argue that Catholic canonization of
the deuterocanonical books seems innovative and dubious:
a) They were not canonized until 1546.
b) They were canonized at a suspiciously convenient time, for they were
useful in counter-Reformation controversy against Protestants: 2 Macc 12:45-46
supports purgatory and prayer for the dead (Geisler Apologetics 365); Tobit
12:9, 14:10,11; Ecclus 3:30; and 1 Macc 2:52 support Catholic justification
(Wenham 152); 2 Macc 15:12-16 supports the intercession of saints (Jerusalem
Bible 656); and Sir 3:3,15,17 supports the power of good works to atone for
sin.
Answered:
a) It is true that these books were not canonized by an ecumenical council
until 1546but neither were any other books of the Bible. It was not
considered necessary to define such a doctrine until the Reformation, when
Luther, in an unprecedented move, published his German Bible with James,
Hebrews, Jude, Revelation, and the deuterocanonical books extracted from the
main text and placed in an unnumbered appendix (cf. Stravinskas 113). Even
Luther believed the extent of the canon remained an open issue (Runia 139,
Wenham 165). As seen in Part 1, the local councils of the 4th century which
canonized the New Testament, also canonized the deuterocanonical books.
b) The Catholics were not adding books, but the Protestants were taking
them away (see Part 1). Moreover, since Catholic theologians at the time
rarely used these texts as prooftexts, but make different arguments
principally about the authority of the church, this objection is weak. One
reason the Tridentine canon was approved was that it taught explicitly the
resurrection of the dead (2 Macc 7:9, 14:46, Wisd 2:23), Hell (Sir 7:17), and
the Final Judgment (Wisd 3:9-10), important Christian doctrines which were
left vague in the Jewish canon of Old Testament scriptures (cf. Jerusalem
Bible 656).
Protestants also argue against the inclusion of the deuterocanonical books in
the canon, on the grounds that the Old Testament of Jesus and the Apostles did
not include the deuterocanonical books, as assertion they back up with the
following prooftexts and arguments:
a) Lk 11:51 ("from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zechariah")
indicates that Jewish accepted the Jewish canon, since Abel was the first
martyr of the Jewish canon (Gen 4:8) and Zechariah was the last martyr of the
Jewish canon (2 Chron 24:21) (McDowell 31).
b) Josephus: "We have not tens of thousands of books, discordant and
conflicting, but only twenty-two [the standard number from the Hebrew Bible,
24, probably comes from the combinations Judges-Ruth and
Jeremiah-Lamentations], containing the record of all time, which have been
justly believed (to be divine)... From Artaxerxes until our time everything
has been recorded, but has not been deemed worthy of like credit with what
preceded, because the exact succession of the prophets ceased. But what faith
we have placed in our own writings is evident by our conduct; for though so
long a time has now passed, no one has dared either to add anything to them,
or to take anything from them, or to alter anything in them. But it is
instinctive in all Jews at once from their very birth to regard them as
commands of God, and to abide by them, and if need be, cheerfully to die for
them" (Josephus, Against Apion I.8.41,42 quoted in Wenham 135-36,
Geisler Apologetics 365-66).
c) Philo (20BC-AD40), despite his extensive Old Testament quotations, never
quoted from the deuterocanonical books as inspired (McDowell 35).
d) At Jamnia in AD90, Jewish scholars did not accept the deuterocanonical
books and decided to retain the pseudographia (Ezekiel, Esther, Ecclesiastes)
(McDowell 36).
e) According to the Talmud, i) "after the latter prophets Haggai,
Zecharia, and Malachi, the Holy Spirit departed from Israel" (Babylonian
Talmud, "Sanhedrin," VII-VIII, 24), ii) "Up to this point
[the time of Alexander the Great] the prophets prophesied through the Holy
Spirit; from this time onward incline thine ear and listen to the sayings of
the wise" (Seder Olam Rabba 30); iii) "the books of Ben Sira and
whatever books have been written since his time are not canonical" (Tosefta
Yadaim 3:5) (McDowell 31).
f) 1 Macc 9:27 confirms the Talmudic evidence ("there was great
distress in Israel, such as has not been since the time the prophets ceased to
appear among them"), implying that it was definitely not inspired
(Geisler Apologetics 366).
g) 2 Macc 15:38 likewise makes claims about itself inconsistent with a
inspired book: "If [this book] is trashy and mediocre, that is all I
could manage."
h) 2 Macc 15:9 similarly refers to the "law and the prophets" as
a closed canon, at least implicitly (Geisler Apologetics 367).
i) Mileto, Bishop of Sardis (~170) compiled the earliest datable list of
Old Testament books (which he obtained in Syria), which leaves out the
deuterocanonical books: "Their names are these . . . five books of Moses:
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Leviticus, Deuteronomy. Jesus Naue,
Judges, Ruth. Four books of Kingdoms, two of Chronicles, the Psalms of David,
Solomons Proverbs (also called Wisdom), Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job.
Of the Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, the Twelve in a single book, Daniel,
Ezekiel, Ezra [all books of Hebrew canon in that order, but with Esther
omitted] " (Letter to Anesimius in Eusebius Ecclesiastical History
IV. 26 quoted in McDowell 32).
j) Jesus authorized the "Law and the Prophets" (Mt 5:17, Lk
24:27), not the writings, in which the deuterocanonical books would have been
included due to their late date (Geisler Apologetics 367).
k) Lk 24:44: ". . . Everything must be fulfilled that is written about
me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms." Jesus here refers
to the three-fold division of the Palestinian canon mentioned by Josephus
(McDowell).
l) Paul believed "everything laid down in the law or written in the
prophets" (Acts 24:14) (Geisler Apologetics 367).
m) The book of Baruch was probably not even written until AD 100 (McDowell
<<).
n) It seems that if the book of Baruch were authentic, it would have been
included with the other minor prophets to form a book of "The
Thirteen" rather than "The Twelve."
o) The Hebrew text and the Greek text of Sirach differ so dramatically
(Jerusalem Bible 1034) that it is likely the Jews felt reasonably free to edit
in their transmission of the text, which makes it unlikely that the Jews saw
Sirach as canonical. That the Church canonized the Greek text (Jerusalem Bible
1034) seems suspicious, since in all non-deuterocanonical books (I believe)
the book itself is canonized and the discovery of earlier texts implies a
revision of the current Bible.
p) Arent Protestants right in following the Jewish canon (and not
recognizing the Deuterocanonical books, since Christianity is an extension of
Judaism, and since the Jews have been "entrusted with the very words of
God" (Rom 3:2) (Geisler Apologetics 365)?
Answered:
a) The parallel verse (Mt 23:35) refers to Zechariah son of Barachiah, not
the Zechariah son of Jehoiada of 2 Chron 24:20-22, so the argument fails (Hartono
"Old" 2).
b) Jesus and/or the Apostles knew both canons, as proven by the fact that
the New Testament writers on rare occasion did quote from the Hebrew,
translated into Greek, rather than quoting directly from LXX. This should not
be surprising since we know that Greek-speaking-Jews, who would have used the
LXX, lived in Palestine (Acts 6:1) (Hartono "Old" 1). They used LXX
more and on crucial passages, such as Isa 7:14 (LXX: virgin, Pal: young
woman). So, Josephus testifies to the extent of the Palestinian canon, but not
to its divine authority.
c) Like Josephus, Philo is a representative of the Palestinian school and
testifies (implicitly) to the extent of the Palestinian canon, but not to its
divine authority.
d) Palestinian Jews naturally canonized the Old Testament according to
their tradition and not that of the Hellenized Jews. Their decision was not
universal, as Egyptian Jews to this day accept the LXX canon less Ecclus (Hartono
"Old" 1). It may even be that the exclusion of the deuterocanonicals
at Jamnia was precisely a move against the growing Christian sect, since the
gospels were also specifically denounced at Jamnia (Akin 1).
e) More evidence from the Palestinian school (which triumphed in Judaism)
does not prove that school right.
f) God can inspire anyone to write scripture, prophets or no (Hartono
"Old" 3).
g) Most books of the Bible lack claims of inspiration, and some even bear
marks that would seem to exclude inspiration. i) 1 Cor 1:14-16: "I am
thankful that I did not baptize any of you except Crispus and Gaius, so no one
can say that you were baptized into my name. (Yes, I also baptized the
household of Stephanas; beyond that, I dont remember if I baptized anyone
else)" which seems to imply that the inspiring God forgot what he was
saying (Keating 129). ii) 1 Cor 7:12,25: "To the rest I say this (I, not
the Lord): If any brother has a wife who is not a believer and she is willing
to live with him, he must not divorce her.. . . Now about virgins: I have no
command from the Lord, but I give a judgment as one who by the Lords mercy
is trustworthy."
h) Similarly, Peter refers to Pauls writings as scripture, and this does
not imply a closed canon, so neither need this verse in 1 Macc.
i) Mileto was one bishop among many who disagreed. His views are not the
oldest extant Christian views on the Old Testament canon (see above), even if
his list is the earliest. Even were his evidence somehow more significant than
the others, since he did not include Esther, his evidence still would not
support the Protestant canon.
j) This objection goes equally strongly against protocanonical books in
writings. Moreover, Jesus refers to the Psalms in addition to the Law and
Prophets in Lk 24:44.
k) Jesus is speaking here about prophecies, not necessarily about the
canon: just as not every Old Testament book is quoted in the New Testament, so
also not every Old Testament book contains Messianic prophecy. Moreover,
Daniel is placed in Writings in the Palestinian canon, and since Jesus doesnt
mention Writings as distinct from Psalms when mentioning the books which prophesied
of him, it seems he implicitly approves of the LXX canon. Further, these terms
seem to have been used rather loosely, e.g. Paul quotes from both Psalms and
Isaiah and calls both "Law" (Rom 3:10-19; 1 Cor 14:21) (Hartono
"Old" 2).
l) This objection likewise goes equally strongly against protocanonical
books in writings. Moreover, Paul quotes frequently from writings.
m) There is considerable debate about the dating of Baruch; many place it
before 100 BC (Jerusalem Bible).
n) Baruch was written late enough after the other twelve minor prophets
that we should not expect it to be compiled together.
o) Catholics trust that God guided the process of canonization through the
apostles and early Christians. The Hebrew texts of Sirach, I believe, do not
predate the Greek texts, so the charge of suspiciousness is ungrounded. The
divergence in text is explainable on the ground that the Palestinian Jews did
not consider the book canonical, and hence, were not hindered from introducing
changes to the Hebrew text. Finally, significant differences between Hebrew
and Greek texts are found in the books of the Jewish/Protestant canon as well,
especially Esther (the additions aside) (Hadas in Goodspeed 165).
p) During the time before Christ, Jews were divided over the canon, with
Greek-speaking Jews accepting and using the deuterocanonical books and
Palestinian Jews not accepting them. There is no reason to consider Jewish
partisan opinion normative in a matter of Christian doctrine (Josephus, Philo,
Jamnia). There is good reason not to take Rom 3:2 to support the Palestinian
canon; New Testament writers quote from non-biblical sources (2 Tim 3:8, Jude
9,14).
Furthermore, there is a good positive case for the deuterocanonicals, in
addition to the patristic evidence cited in Part 1:
a) The best evidence that the apostles accepted the deuterocanonical books
is that the New Testament is full of quotations from the LXX translation of
the Old Testament, which included the deuterocanonical books (Stravinskas
113). It is implausible that the apostles would have quoted from the LXX
without giving a warning to their followers that certain books were fallacious
had that been their view (Akin 1).
b) The New Testament even alludes to 2 Macc 6:18-7:41 in Heb 11:35 (Geisler
Apologetics 364, Hartono "Old" 2).
c) Acts 7:14 indicates that the earliest Christians used the LXX. In this
verse, Stephen relates that Jacob came to Egypt with 75 people, which is the
number found in the LXX, but not in the Hebrew (which gives the number as
"70") ("Complete" 1).
d) Wisd 1:16-2:1, 2:12-24 contain messianic prophecy: "But the godless
will call out . . . If the virtuous man is Gods son, God will take his
part and rescue him from the clutches of his enemies. . . . Let us condemn him
to a shameful death" (Wisd 1:16, 2:18,20) predicts "The chief
priests, the teachers of the law and the elders mocked him. . . . He trusts
in God. Let God rescue him now if he wants him, for he said, I am the Son
of God" (Mt 27:41,43) ("Complete" 2).
e) Early fathers such as Origen, Athanasius, and Cyril of Jerusalem quoted
the deuterocanonical books (Geisler Apologetics 464).
f) The earliest extant Old Testament MSS, including the Codex Sinaiticus,
Codex Vaticanus, and Codex Alexandrinus included the deuterocanonical books (Geisler
Apologetics 364).
g) Augustine accepted all the deuterocanonical books (Geisler Apologetics
364).
h) The Roman Synod by Pope Damascus (382), the Synod of Hippo (393), and
the Synods of Carthage (393, 397, 419) all accepted the deuterocanonical books
(Geisler Apologetics 364; Jerusalem Bible 601).
i) Many Church doctors and councils from the ninth to the fifteenth
centuries listed the deuterocanonical books as inspired (Geisler Apologetics
364).
j) Protestants should remember: i) that the Bible was always copied and
printed with the apocrypha written mixed in with the rest of the Bible until
Luther separated them out for the first time in his German Bible (Wenham 147);
ii) that the Bible was not regarded as complete without the apocrypha even by
Protestants (though understood as non-doctrinal, edifying reading) until 1827
when the British and Foreign Bible Societies decided to do so (and were soon
followed by the American Bible Society) (Wenham 149).
Rejoinder to positive case for the Deuterocanonicals:
a) Wenham argues that it is impossible to know what books were in the
first-century LXX given that the extant codices from the 4th and 5th centuries
include "apocryphal books . . . but with no consistency as to the books
contained or their order; they are mixed up with the undisputed books of the
canon" (see above) (Wenham 148-49).
b) Despite this one allusion from one deuterocanonical book, no
deuterocanonical book is quoted in the entire New Testament. If the apostles
did consider the deuterocanonical books inspired, we should expect that they
would have quoted from it since they quoted from the Old Testament so
extensively, and even quoted a pagan poet in Acts 17:28 (Geisler Apologetics
364). Granted, the New Testament quotes only 18 out of the 22/24 Hebrew Old
Testament books, but we would expect that there would be at least one quote
from one deuterocanonical book if Jesus or the apostles considered them
authoritative (Geisler Apologetics 366).
e) Despite the fact that Origen, Athanasius, and Cyril of Jerusalem quoted
the deuterocanonical books, these three as well as "all important Fathers
before Augustine clearly rejected the Apocrypha" (Geisler Apologetics
464).
f) See a.
g) Augustines authority is less than that of Jerome, his contemporary,
who rejected the deuterocanonical books (Geisler Apologetics 364). Augustine
said of Jerome, "If there is anything he does not know, no mortal knows
it." Initially, Jerome refused to translate the deuterocanonical books
for the Vulgate, and later only translated a few hurriedly; when he died, the
deuterocanonical books were imported into the Vulgate from the old Latin
version (McDowell 36). Jerome first used the word "apocrypha" (lit.,
hidden) to designate the deuterocanonical books (McDowell 33). Moreover,
Augustine did not consider the deuterocanonical books inspired until after
325, when the Greek translations including the deuterocanonical books appeared
(Geisler Apologetics 364).
h) No synods before 325, when the Greek translations including the
deuterocanonical books appeared, listed these books as inspired. Moreover,
these synods were "local listings," not authoritative ecumenical
judgments (Geisler Apologetics 364). If they were authoritative, then Jerome
would have been a heretic.
i) While many doctors did accept the deuterocanonical books, many others
did not, including Cardinal Cajetan as late as the Reformation era (Geisler
Apologetics 365).
j) This does not prove that the case for their authority was in any way
undecided.
Answered:
a) Just as the extent of the deuterocanonical books was in question after
the fourth century non-ecumenical councils, so too was the extent of the New
Testament canon, with different versions of the New Testament book appearing
in MSS even after the 4th C. So Protestant objectors inconsistently accept
these councils for their New Testament canon but not for their Old Testament
canon, not realizing that before the Reformation, the canon of both testaments
was not a divisive issue for Christians, further evidence against sola
scriptura (Hartono "Old" 3). Sinaiticus includes the 27 plus
Epistle of Barnabus and Shepherd of Hermas; Alexandrinus includes the 27 plus
1 and 2 Clement; Claromontanus (6th C) includes the 27 less Phil, 1 and 2 Thes,
and Heb, plus Epistle of Barnabus, Shepherd of Hermas, Acts of Paul, and
Revelation of Peter (Hartono "New" 2).
b) This criteria of "quotation, in; no-quotation, out" is not an
adequate basis to reject the deuterocanonical books, because i) the New
Testament never quotes from Esther, Ecc, and Song of Songs, ii) There are
indirect quotations of the deuterocanonical books in the New Testament (see
above), iii) There are quotations "from scripture" in the New
Testament which cannot be traced to an Old Testament source (Jn 7:38, Jas 4:5,
Mt 2:23), and iv) Jude 9 and 14 quote from the Ascension of Moses and Enoch,
non-canonical books (Hartono "Old" 2).
e) Geisler Apologetics is simply distorting the facts: These three
did not reject the deuterocanonical books completely, nor was there any
unanimity among other important fathers, as is seen above.
f) See a.
g) Jerome was persuaded to include the deuterocanonicals because of their
widespread acceptance. Moreover, late in his life, in his reply to Rufinus
(402), Jerome defended deuterocanonical portions of Daniel, writing,
"What sin have I committed if I followed the judgment of the churches?
But he who brings charges against me for relating the objections that the
Hebrews are wont to raise against the story of Susanne the Son of the Three
Children, and the story of Bel and the Dragon, which are not found in the
Hebrew volume, proves that he is just a foolish sycophant. For I was relating
not my personal views, but rather the remarks that they [the Jews] are wont to
make against us" (Against Rufinus 11:33 in Akin 3).
h) True, the deuterocanonical books were the subject of much debate for
several centuries, and the first counciliar listings of the Old Testament
canon were indeed late, but the same may be said for Esther, 2 Pe, 2 and 3 Jn,
Jude, James, and Rev (Hartono "Old" 2).
i) Cajetans opinion further corroborates the ambiguity of the canon
before Trent and the fact that it was not a divisive issue until the
Reformation. Had any majority of Christian ever believed sola scriptura,
the canon surely would have been a divisive issue before 1546.
4) The deuterocanonical books contain contradictions with other Christian
doctrines, implying that the Catholic Church which canonized them has erred.
a) The deuterocanonicals teach the pantheistic doctrine of emanationism (Wisd
7:25) (Wenham 152).
b) The deuterocanonicals teach the pantheistic doctrine of pre-existence of
souls (Wisd 8:19,20) (Wenham 152).
c) The deuterocanonicals teach the pantheistic doctrine of creation out of
pre-existent matter (Wisd 11:17) (Wenham 152).
d) The deuterocanonicals teach the pantheistic doctrine of the body as a
weight on the soul (Wisd 9:15) (Wenham 152).
e) The deuterocanonicals teach the doctrine of annihilation of evildoers (2
Macc 7:14).
f) Implicit moral praise of treachery and deceit for the nationalistic
cause in Judith.
Answered:
a) This verse states only that wisdom comes from God.
b) This verse is unclear; it may mean that a pure body results from
righteous living or that a pure body is a benefit of being born in the noble
line of Solomon.
c) This verse teaches that God created the world out of formless matter,
just as Genesis teaches: Gen 1:1-3: "In the beginning God created the
heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty, darkness was over
the surface of the deep, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the waters.
And God said, Let there be light, and there was light."
d) This verse is very similar to Jesuss statement, "The spirit is
willing but the flesh is weak," and to Pauls descriptions of the flesh
battling with the spirit (e.g. Gal 5), though the New Testament contains a
further development, clarifying this teaching so that it is not misunderstood
as anti-material/Gnostic/Neo-Platonic.
e) 2 Macc does not teach this doctrine as such; a character espouses his
belief in annilationism. Even Protestants must concede that the doctrines
concerning the afterlife were relatively undeveloped in Old Testament times
and were not clarified until Christs coming.
f) As in all doctrine, moral doctrine undergoes developments, and in no
area is moral doctrine more difficult (and debated to this day) than ethics of
war. The main message of Judith is not an advocacy of treachery, but an
encouragement to trust Gods providential care for his people.
5) The deuterocanonical books contain contradictions with history, implying
that the Catholic Church which canonized them has erred.
a) Many parts of the deuterocanonical books seemed fanciful and gratuitous
in the supernatural (the Dragon in Daniel, the absence of any
cross-examination of Susannas accusers, the magic and death of husbands in
Tobit, etc.).
b) Nebuchadnezzar as king of Assyria in Judith 1, historically false (Boettner
in Hartono "Old" 2).
c) Wisdom claims to be written by Solomon, but this is very dubious since
it contains ideas common to Hellenistic philosophy which entered Palestine
much later.
Answered:
a) Catholics acknowledge that these stories probably are not historically
true according to canons of nineteenth and twentieth century historical
criticism, but their symbolic meaning is the crucial aspect of interpreting
these books. Acknowledging this, Catholicism does not leave itself open to
Bultmannian demythologizing because its doctrines are quite clear about what
stories recounted in the Bible must be interpreted as historically true (i.e.
the Fall, giving of the Law, Incarnation, Crucifixion, Burial, Resurrection,
Ascension) and which may be interpreted otherwise (the rest).
b) Judith means "Jewess," an indication of the books
allegorical nature. Combining the Babylonians and Assyrians together
symbolizes both major conquerors of Israel, reinforcing the basic point of the
book that Gods people should rely on his ways of deliverance, even if they
(like a woman) seem dubious and unreliable (Hartono "Old" 2). As
scholar Moses Hadas remarks, "By opening his story with a statement that
Nebuchadnezzar ruled over the Assyrians in Ninevah when, as every literate
reader would know, Nebucchadnezzar ruled over Babylonians in Baylon, the
author of Judith virtually gives notice that his work is a fiction. . . . If .
. . we read Judith or Tobit as a chronicle of actual events, we must either
resort to most implausible interpretation or dismiss the chronicler as an
ignorant bungler; but if we realize that such books were intended as edifying
romances for the purpose of inculcating and strengthening loyalties under
trying conditions, we can appreciate them as honest and effective pieces of
literary art" (in Goodspeed 131, xvi). In other words, Judith need not be
interpreted literally, and moreover should not be, since the author has
indicated this in the first sentence. In no way is belief in the inspiration
of Judith damaged by its fictional character if there are good reasons to
consider its canonization valid.
c) First, this charge applies equally to Ecclesiasties and Song of Solomon,
against which similar charges concerning fraudulent authorship claims can and
are often leveled by scholars (cf. Hadas in Goodspeed xvii). Thus, this
argument is either equally damaging to the Protestant canon or else equally
innocuous. In any case, it is probably innocuous. First, we cannot dismiss
these claims in any of these books merely by an argument based on a closed
causal system of cause, and second, even if all three books were not written
by Solomon as stated, it is likely that this was a commonly-understood
convention and therefore not fraudulent.
Arguments regarding the Orthodox Deuterocanonal Books
As we have seen above, in addition to the difference between the Catholic and
Protestant Old Testaments, there are other debated books which the Eastern
Churches accept as canonical, but both Catholics and Protestants do not
accept1 and 2 Esdras (LXX: 3 and 4 Esdras), 3 and 4 Maccabees, the Prayer of
Manassah, Odes, and the Psalms of Solomon. Protestants often argue that
the simulataneous inclusion of the deuterocanonicals and exclusion of these
additional Orthodox books is arbitrary, citing the following reasons:
a) Latin codices often include 3 and 4 Maccabees and the Psalms of Solomon
(Wenham 151).
b) The Fathers, including Justin, Tertullian, and Clement of Alexandria,
used intertestamental books outside the Tridentine canon, especially Enoch and
2 Esdras (Wenham 151).
c) The Eastern Churchs Old Testament canon includes additional books.
d) The Church of England listed 1 and 2 Esdras and Manasses as part of the
Apocrypha which was be read "for example of life and instruction of
manners; but yet doth it not apply them to establish any doctrine"
(Article 6, 39 Articles, quoted in Wenham 147).
e) It is especially suspicious that the Church rejected 2 Esdras and
included 2 Maccabees since 2 Esdras 7:[105] speaks strongly against praying
for the dead and 2 Macc 12:45 supports prayer for the dead (Geisler).
Answered: The Tridentine decision stated that the canonized books were
those which could be affirmed without doubt, and most of them including 2
Macabeess had long been informally accepted and were not in any real doubt.
Trent reaffirmed as an ecumenical canon the counciliar decisions of the fourth
century in which the New Testament as 27 books was also canonized. These
fourth-century councils considered the other apocryphal books and excluded
them for good reasons. The Prayer of Manasseh was excluded because it
contradicts the doctrine of original sin and the record of Genesis by claiming
"For Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who did not sin against you..."
Following Jerome, and noting that 1 Esdras is either incomplete or placed in a
supplement in all official copies of the Vulgate, Trent decided not to
recognize 1 Esdras either. 2 Esdras was written in the Christian era in Latin,
and hence it could not be placed with the others in the Tridentine canon as
"beyond doubt." It could not have been excluded on the basis of
teaching against prayer for the dead, since 2 Esdras 7:[105] says it will be
useless to pray for someone after the Day of Judgment, not after death:
"The Day of Judgment is final and shows to all the stamp of truth. Just
as now a father cannot send his son or a son his father or a master is his
slave or a friend his dearest friend to be sick for him, or sleep or eat or be
cured, so no one can pray for another then, or lay a burden on another, for
they must all bear everyone his own iniquity or uprightness then" (Goodspeed
translation). The Eastern church kept these books because they were in the
Slavonic translation, on the authority of the translators. Finally, it must be
remembered that there is no argument for the canon except the argument from
Providence, and if Providence is accepted for the fourth century New Testament
canonization, it ought logically to accept the fourth century Old Testament
canonization as well as the Tridentine canon.